20th century
The ideas of the 19th century kill people in the 20th
What happened — and why
The First and Second World Wars
Seventeen million dead in the First. Seventy million in the Second. The Holocaust. Hiroshima.
The philosophical cause
Camus — Nietzsche to Hitler (through distortion). Marx to Lenin to Stalin. Hegel to nationalism to ethnic states. The ideas of the 19th century taken literally.
Camus: the absurd is the only honest position. Berdyaev: the Russian catastrophe as a spiritual diagnosis. Heidegger himself supported Nazism — and kept silent.
The Gulag (1918–1956)
The system of Soviet camps. By various estimates, between 1.5 and 1.8 million died directly in the camps, and millions more through related repressions.
The philosophical cause
Berdyaev — Marx: class enemies objectively obstruct progress. Lenin: therefore they must be destroyed. Stalin: carried out consistently.
Berdyaev had foreseen this as early as 1918 in "The Philosophy of Inequality," for which he was expelled from Russia on the "Philosophers' Ship."
Aleksei Losev
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Edmund Husserl
Emmanuel Mounier
Erich Fromm
Ivan Ilyin
Jacques Derrida
Jean-Paul Sartre
John Dewey
Karl Jaspers
Lev Karsavin
Lev Shestov
Martin Buber
Martin Heidegger
Michel Foucault
Mircea Eliade
Nikolai Lossky
Paul Ricœur
Roland Barthes
Semyon Frank
Sergei Averintsev
Theodor Adorno
Viktor Frankl
Vladimir Bibikhin
Yevgeny Trubetskoy
Alexander Men
Alexander Schmemann
Alexei Mechev
Anthony of Sourozh
Ilya Fondaminsky
Mother Maria (Skobtsova)
New Martyrs of Russia
Pavel Adelgeim
Pavel Florensky
Pyotr Baranovsky
Sergei Bulgakov
Sergei Fudel
Sergei Mechev
Vladimir Lossky
Albert Camus
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
Alexander Belyaev
Alexander Blok
Alexander Tvardovsky
Anatoly Rybakov
Anna Akhmatova
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
Arkady Averchenko
Arseny Tarkovsky
Bertolt Brecht
Boris Pasternak
C. S. Lewis
Daniil Andreyev
Daniil Kharms
Erich Maria Remarque
Ernest Hemingway
F. Scott Fitzgerald
Flann O'Brien
Franz Kafka
George Bernard Shaw
George Orwell
Georgy Ivanov
Igor Severyanin
Ilf and Petrov
Ilya Ehrenburg
Ilya Selvinsky
Isaac Asimov
Isaac Babel
Isaac Bashevis Singer
Ivan Bunin
J. D. Salinger
James Joyce
Jaroslav Hašek
John Fowles
John Steinbeck
Jorge Luis Borges
Joseph Brodsky
Karel Čapek
Konstantin Balmont
Leonid Andreyev
Marcel Proust
Maria Petrovykh
Marina Tsvetaeva
Maurice Maeterlinck
Maxim Gorky
Maximilian Voloshin
Michel Houellebecq
Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov
Mikhail Zoshchenko
Nikolai Gumilyov
Nikolai Klyuev
Nikolai Zabolotsky
Osip Mandelstam
Ray Bradbury
Romain Rolland
Sasha Chorny
Sergei Dovlatov
Sergei Yesenin
Sergey Gorodetsky
Stanisław Lem
Stefan Zweig
T. S. Eliot
The Strugatsky Brothers
Thomas Mann
Umberto Eco
Valery Bryusov
Varlam Shalamov
Velimir Khlebnikov
Virginia Woolf
Vladimir Mayakovsky
Vladimir Nabokov
Vladimir Narbut
Vladimir Tendryakov
Vladimir Vysotsky
Vladislav Khodasevich
Vyacheslav Ivanov
William Faulkner
William Somerset Maugham
Yevgeny Schwartz
Yuri Tynyanov
Andy Warhol
Aristarkh Lentulov
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Christy Brown
David Bomberg
David Burliuk
Dmitriy Mochalsky
Edvard Munch
Egon Schiele
Emil Nolde
Franz von Stuck
Frida Kahlo
Friedensreich Hundertwasser
Georges Braque
Gustav Klimt
Henri Matisse
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Jackson Pollock
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Jean-Michel Basquiat
Joseph Kosuth
Kazimir Malevich
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Marc Chagall
Marcel Duchamp
Mark Rothko
Max Ernst
Mikhail Larionov
Natalia Goncharova
Nicholas Roerich
Pablo Picasso
Paul Klee
René Magritte
Salvador Dalí
Umberto Boccioni
Vladimir Tatlin
Wassily Kandinsky
Wols
Yervand Kochar
Zinaida Serebriakova
