17th century
The Thirty Years' War burns Europe. Descartes begins from zero
What happened — and why
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)
Eight million dead. Germany lost a third of its population. Catholics against Protestants — but in truth, everyone against everyone.
The philosophical cause
Descartes — Religious certainty leads to mass killing. A different foothold is needed.
Descartes: if I cannot trust the senses, religion, or tradition — what remains? "Cogito ergo sum." Reason as the foundation.
Spinoza excommunicated (1656)
Spinoza is expelled from the Jewish community of Amsterdam for "terrible heresies." He lived by grinding lenses and refused every honor.
The philosophical cause
Spinoza — He said what he thought: God and Nature are one. The Bible was written by people. Freedom is the highest value.
His "Ethics" appeared posthumously. Two hundred years later it would become a source for German idealism — for Hegel and Schelling.
